Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization
Ways of the World
Chapter 9: Empires in Collision - Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia, 1800–1900
Chapter 10: Colonial Encounters in Asia, Africa, and Oceania, 1750–1950
What major events and processes shaped Chinese history from the late eighteenth century to the early twentieth century?
Carving Up the Pie of China
COMPARISON:
To what extent does this image of European powers and Japan competing for “slices” of China depict actions that were similar to those taken by European powers in the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
The Crisis Within
China was a victim of its own success
population ↑↑ 100 million (1685) to 430 million in (1853)
no accompanying Industrial Revolution like Europe
no immense wealth from south/west expansion
↑↑ pressure on the land, poverty, lack of jobs, starvation
Chinese bureaucracy can’t keep pace with the empire’s growing population
unable to maintain basic functions: tax, flood control, social welfare and public security
centralized power corroded by regional/local control
corruption/ harsh treatment of peasants by officials
European infiltration in early 19th c. → internal trade disruption, rise in unemployment, & an increase in taxes on peasants
bandit gangs and peasant rebellions became more common
Taiping Uprising (1850-1864)
rejected Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism
leader Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus
advocated for radical change in society even though Hong was more conservative in his views
abolition of private property, radical land redistribution, end of prostitution & opium
transformation of China into an industrialized society
Revolutionary changes for women - no footbinding, fight in own regiments, equal landsharing, sit for civil service exams
initial successes gave way to internal divisions and failure
Intense conservatism meant peasant issues persisted but:
20-30 mil died by the end of the rebellion
Qing dynasty/Chinese economy weakened
gentry and regional governors strengthened their control
Taiping Uprising
SOURCING AND SITUATION:
How does this British painting portray the
attitude of the Chinese rebels to the British soldier?
SOURCING AND SITUATION: What aspects of this photograph appear to be posed? What was the photographer’s purpose in taking this photo?
Western Pressures
Weak Qing dynasty defeated in wars with France & Japan, losing Vietnam, Korea, & Taiwan
China carved into spheres of influence by late 19 c.
became part of the European “informal empire”
Chinese industrialization stunted by “unequal treaties
Efforts at “self-strengthening” (Self Strengthening Movement) during 1860s / 1870s
traditional principles + some borrowing from the West
new and improved exam system to recruit “good men” capable of reconstructing China after Taiping
restoration of rural social and economic order through support of landlords, repair of irrigation systems
attempts at “defensive modernization” with reluctance → reaction to the defeat of the Opium Wars
few textile and steel factories, coal mines, telegraph
establishment of some modern arsenals & shipyards, some study of other languages & sciences
conservative leaders feared that urban, industrial, and commercial development would harm the landlord class → never implement enough change to cause significant change
new industries were largely dependent on foreigners, strengthened local authority rather than central state
The Failure of Conservative Modernization
anti-foreign Boxer Uprising of 1898-1901 marked self-strengthening fail, following Japanese defeat in Sino-Japanese War (over Korean peninsula)
militia organizations killed many Europeans & Chinese Christians, besieged foreign embassies in Beijing
Western powers/Japan occupied Beijing to crush revolt - then imposed massive reparation payments on China
Increasing disillusionment with the Qing by educated and elites
liked Western political practices, limits on ruler’s power
Chinese nationalism emerged from men & women opposed to foreigners: Westerners, Qing, some traditions
Imperial collapse became imminent
Hundred Days of Reform (1898) failed by conservatives
Chinese Revolution (1911-12) - end 2k years of dynasty
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: To what extent did the policy of Qianlong continue earlier patterns of interactions between China and those it perceived to be outsiders?
CAUSATION: How did China’s internal and external challenges intersect during the nineteenth century?
COMPARISON: What was distinctive about the Taiping rebellion in comparison with other Chinese peasant upheavals?
CAUSATION: Analyze the internal and external factors that led to the Taiping Uprising.
CAUSATION: What accounts for the successes and failures of the massive peasant rebellions of 19th-century China?
COMPARISON: To what extent were the causes and results of the Taiping Uprising similar to those of the Atlantic revolutions you learned about in Chapter 7?
CAUSATION: How did Western pressures stimulate change in China during the nineteenth century?
CAUSATION: What strategies did China adopt to confront its various problems? Why were they so unsuccessful?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: To what extent were these self-strengthening strategies a continuation of Chinese policies toward outsiders, and to what extent were they a change?
How did the Ottoman experience during the nineteenth century parallel China's, and how did it diverge from it?
“The Sick Man of Europe”
in 1750, the Ottoman Empire was still strong, at center of the Islamic world→ by 1900, it was known as “the sick man of Europe”
unable to prevent the fall of Islamic region after region to aggression from Russians, British, Austrians, & French (India, Indonesia, W. Africa, C. Asia)
Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating → permanent loss of Egypt for Ottomans
Rise of nationalism (aided by British & Russians) → Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, & Romania became independent
Weakened central state from ↓ revenue, ↑ infighting
provincial authorities, local warlords power ↑↑ } weakens central government
elite infantry Janissaries became militarily ineffective
Effects from Western developments
centrality of Ottoman/Arab lands to Afro-Eurasian trade had ↓↓ with ↑↑ of European direct access to Asia
competition from cheap European manufactured goods hurt Ottoman artisans → urban riots
Ottoman capitulations (like Chinese unequal treaties) to European demands, i.e. exemptions from Ottoman law and taxes for foreign merchants
European penetration into Ottoman economy eroded Ottoman sovereignty & increased Ottoman debt to them → relied on foreign loans to develop economy → could not repay interest on debts → foreign control of revenue generating systems → became dependent on Europe
Reform & Its Opponents
Supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular, inclusive state
Young Ottomans: new class of writers, officials, etc. educated in the Western way, active mid-19th century
favored European-style parliament/constitution to check the Sultan’s power, help the state become modern
Islamic modernism: accept Western science/tech but reject materialism
Abd al-Hamid II accepted new constitution & parliament in 1876 & then suspended it - became despotic with the threat of war with Russia
called himself caliph, successor to Mohammed, and protector of all Muslims globally
opposition to Abd al Hamid II’s despotism by elites, known as “Young Turks”
advocated for a militantly secular public life & full commitment to thorough modernization a la Europe
growth of the concept of Turkey as a national state
Young Turks grabbed power (1908) - military coup
radical secularization of schools, courts, law codes
permitted elections and competing parties
Law of Family Rights for all citizens
encouraged Turkish as an official language
restricted polygamy, permitted some divorce
antagonized non-Turkic peoples in the Ottoman Empire
stimulated Arab and other nationalisms in response
Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I
Reform & Its Opponents
Vigorous reforms aimed at “defensive modernization”; went further than the Chinese for several reasons
No internal crisis on the scale of China
no internal upheaval at core of empire, only periphery
did not have to deal with explosive population growth
rulers were Turkic & Muslim, not like the Manchu Qing
late 18th c., Sultan Selim III tried to establish new military & administrative structures
utilized European advisers, techniques → offended ulama & Janissaries who viewed this as anti-Islam
Selim murdered but Janissaries were crushed by future sultans & the ulama were submerged under state control
more far-reaching measures (Tanzimat, “reorganization”) emerged after 1839
beginning of extensive process of industrialization & modernization
factories, mining, communications, postal service
acceptance of the idea that all citizens are = legally
even non-Muslims had equal rights under the law
mixed tribunals, Christians in high office, secular legislation and secular schools based on European standards (traditional Islamic schools still around)
modest educational opportunities for women as means to strengthen the state
middle and upper class women involved in this
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CAUSATION: What primary and secondary causes led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century?
DEVELOPMENTS AND PROCESSES: In what respects did the Ottoman Empire decline during the nineteenth century?
COMPARISON: In what ways were China and the Ottoman Empire similarly affected by Western industrialism?
CAUSATION: In what different ways did the Ottoman state respond to its various problems?
DEVELOPMENTS AND PROCESSES: To what extent were the Tanzimat reforms attempts to stave off economic and political collapse in the face of Western intrusion?
COMPARISON: In what different ways did various groups define the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century?
COMPARISON: How did the reforms and failures of the Young Ottomans compare with those of the Chinese self-strengthening movement?
COMPARISON: In what ways were the declines of the Chinese and the Ottoman empires similar?
The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian Power
In what ways was Japan’s history in the nineteenth century shaped by its efforts to respond to European and American imperialism?
Tokugawa Shoguns ruled since ~1600prevent civil war among rival feudal lords (daimyo) & their armed retainers (samurai)
daimyo were regulated by the shoguns (ex. 2nd homes in Edo) but retained autonomy in their own “states,” with military forces, law codes, tax systems, currencies
Tokugawa had no national army, currency, and little central authority in the local areas
shogun governed hierarchical society with rules on occupation, residence, dress, behavior
samurai on top, then peasants, artisans; merchants in bottom
Tokugawa oversaw 250 years of “peace”- 1600-1850
Change during the 250 year Tokugawa period
samurai went from war to bureaucratic/administrative class, while remaining very loyal to their daimyos
maintained warrior code of loyalty, honor, self-sacrifice
great economic ↑↑, commercialization, urban growth
agricultural innovations → rice production ↑↑
most urbanized country by 1750 (Edo had 1 mil people)
high literacy rates (40:15 - percentage male to female)
foundational to Japan’s growth in late 19th century
Widespread corruption, famine, peasant uprisings in the early 19th century → Tokugawa losing control
limited contact w Europeans since early 17th c. after expulsion of Christians
only Dutch allowed to trade in one port (Nagasaki)
other Europeans/Americans chased away or killed
Commodore Perry on behalf of USA “forced” Japan to provide better treatment to castaways, right to refuel, buy provisions, open trade ports
was authorized to use force if necessary
to avoid what happened in China, Shogun agreed to several unequal treaties with the “foreign devils”
short civil war ensued & in 1868, young samurai took over & pushed for political change
Meiji Restoration was a major turning point in Japan’s history
the young samurai claimed the newly restored, 15 year old Meiji (aka “Enlightened Rule”) was a descendant of sun goddess Amaterasu
their goal was to save Japan from foreign domination through massive transformation of Japanese society
compared to China, no mass of violence/destruction
Reduced pressure on Japan
Western powers not as interested in Japan as in China & Ottoman Empire
American Civil War redirected USA away from Japan
CLAIMS AND EVIDENCE IN SOURCES: What does this image reveal about the Japanese artist’s view of the recently arrived Americans?
State-guided industrialization program
established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, currency, banking systems
implemented a “labor-intensive industrialization”
many state enterprises later sold to private firms -zaibatsu
modernized without acquiring foreign debt
Effects on society were negative
↑↑ taxes to fund modernization → ↑↑ poverty for peasants → infanticide, sale of daughters, starvation
young women from rural families were contracted by their poor families to work in factories with horrible conditions
some committed suicide or ran away
others organized strikes or joined socialist/anarchists
unions and strikes were brutally repressed
Unequal treaties were revised in Japan’s favor
Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 made Japan = to west
joined Europeans/USA as a fellow empire builder
needed raw materials for its industrial base
became serious economic, political, and military competition for European powers and the USA:
Sino-Chinese War (1894-95) - replaced China as dominant power in East Asia; gained lands after WWI
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) - defeated Russia over Korea and Manchuria and eventually Taiwan
colonies saw Japan as an ally against imperialism
Japanese imperialism was more brutal than European
Koreans lost ½ of their arable land to Japanese settlers
brutality killed thousands and exploited women in WWII
CONTEXTUALIZATION:
To what extent did Japan’s geography both limit and facilitate its imperialist policy?
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: In what ways was Japan changing during the Tokugawa era?
COMPARISON: To what extent was the social and economic status of the merchant class in Japan and China similar?
COMPARISON: To what extent were the factors that led to the downfall of the Tokugawa regime similar to factors that led to the downfall of the Qing dynasty and the Ottoman Empire?
CONTEXTUALIZATION: To what extent were Japanese reformers justified in believing their independence was in danger?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: In what respects was Japan’s nineteenth-century transformation revolutionary? And in what ways did it retain earlier Japanese traditions?
COMPARISON: To what extent did Japan’s industrialization compare to that of Western Europe, Russia, and North America?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: How did Japan’s relationship to the larger world change during its modernization process?
Chapter 10
Colonial Encounters in Asia, Africa, & Oceania, 1750-1950
How did capitalist industrialization, nationalism, & pseudoscience contribute to Europe’s global imperialism?
Prior to Imperialism
Since the era of Exploration (1500-1700), Europeans increased their coastal control over trade in areas like Africa & Asia
Disease, desert, and rough terrain made inland Africa hard to explore prior to Industrialization
Industrialization during the early 19th century will allow Europeans to change how they control these regions→ railroads, weapons, medicine, technology, need for new markets
While Europe was increasing their dominance in the early 1800s, other regions were losing power (Ottoman Empire, China, India)
Europeans were driven to imperialize other regions for a variety of reasons:
Political: Power, Nationalism, International Prestige
Economic: Industrialization→ need for raw materials, new markets, cheap labor
Social: Missionaries, Spread Culture, Civilize other areas, Cultural Superiority, Social Darwinism
Imperialism
Imperialism is the domination of one country over another either economically, politically, and/or culturally
Once countries gain control over another nation, they typically used one of the following forms of imperialism
Colony→ territory ruled directly by a foreign power (ex. America)
Protectorate→ a country ruled indirectly from abroad by a foreign power (ex. British control of India)
Spheres of Influence→ a foreign power controls all trading privileges in the area controlled and exerts political pressure (ex. China)
Economic Imperialism→ independent & less developed nations controlled by private business interests rather than a government
- Joint stock companies are still are thing in the early 19th century (1800s) but the Britain does something
Imperialism created a lot of long lasting impacts such as: Europeans ignoring local languages, taking precious raw materials, using cheap labor, changing political/tribal boundaries, advancing Eur religion & culture, created nationalism throughout the world, introduced new technology
Industrial Revolution Fueled Europe’s Expansion
demand for raw materials & agricultural products
India: cotton, opium, jute (fiber)
West Africa: palm oil, cocoa, peanuts
New Zealand: wool and meat
need for markets to sell European products
British textile exports to Europe, L. America, India
European capitalists often invested money abroad
British investing overseas in Asia/Africa, & US in Latin America
foreign markets kept workers within Europe employed and class conflicts-based civil war at bay
Incr. mass nationalism → rise in imperialism
Italy & Germany unified by 1871 - intensified European national & imperial competition
Colonies were a status symbol, even if not lucrative
provided social, political, & emotional satisfaction
industrial-age developments made overseas expansion possible
Steamships & the Suez Canal - made overseas movement & penetration of internal rivers quicker
underwater telegraph → communication globally
quinine helped prevent malaria deaths in the tropics
breech-loading rifles and machine guns widened military gap between Europeans and everyone else
Economic (Gold) | Political (Glory) | Social (GOD) |
|
|
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Types of Imperialism
Direct/Indirect | Type of Imperialism | Type of Rule |
Direct | Colony | A country or region governed internally by a foreign power (foreigners directly ruling); local elites were removed from power & replaced by a new set of officials brought from the colonizing country |
Indirect | Protectorate | A country or territory with its own internal gov but under the control of an outside power (“puppets”) |
Indirect | Sphere of Influence | An area in which an outside power claims exclusive investment and trading privileges (Controls economy) |
NO GOV RULE | Economic Imperialism | Independent, but controlled by private business interests rather than by a government |
SOURCING AND SITUATION: How could a historian use this political cartoon to describe European attitudes toward African societies during the age of imperialism?
pre-1800, Europeans had defined others in religious terms; ex. they are heathen, we are Christian
industrialization, modernization, immense wealth promoted a secular arrogance among Europeans
European opinion of other cultures dropped
image of cunning “John Chinaman” fed “yellow peril”
Africans viewed as nations/kings pre-1800 to tribes/ chiefs post-1800 to emphasize “primitive” qualities ((manipulation of history))
Pacific Islanders as “big children” living “closer to nature” but not improving what nature gave them
science was used to justify racial attitudes/prejudices - scientific racism - whites on top and less developed “child races” were under them in a hierarchy of races
European expansion viewed as inevitable but led to a sense of responsibility to the “weaker races”
goals of the civilizing mission was to bring “progress” and “civilization” to suppress “native customs”:
bring Christianity to the heathen, bring good government to disordered lands, bring discipline and production to the “lazy natives”, provide some education to the “ignorant and illiterate”, provide clothing to cover up their naked bodies, provide healthcare to the sick
Social Darwinism: Darwin’s evolutionary theory UNSCIENTIFICALLY APPLIED to social systems
“survival of the fittest” - made imperialism and war natural in order to weed out “weaker peoples”
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of nineteenth-century European imperialism?
CAUSATION: What factors contributed to nineteenth-century imperialism?
CAUSATION: What changed European views of Asians and Africans during the nineteenth century?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: Evaluate how Europeans
would use these new views toward non- European societies to sepa
rate themselves from their colonial subjects in Asia and Africa.
A Second Wave of European Conquest
In what different ways did various parts of Asia & Africa come to be enveloped within European, American, or Japanese empires?
focused primarily on Asia, Africa, & Oceania
several new players (Germany, Italy, Belgium, US, Japan) while Spain & Portugal were minor
in general, Europeans preferred informal control
economic penetration & some military intervention
cheaper course of action - less likely to provoke war
competition between European powers → outright conquest & colonial rule in some circ*mstances
local calamities provided opportunity for Europeans to increase control over the native people
drought in southern Africa → British limited Zulu independence in 1877
famine in Ethiopia (late 1880s) → Italy tried to takeover
built on military force or the threat of using it
developed enormous firepower during the 19th century, including newly invented repeating rifles and machine guns
numerous wars of conquest were waged but prevailed almost everywhere → loss of political sovereignty and freedom across the globe
indigenous peoples of Australia
agricultural village societies and chiefdoms in the Pacific islands and parts of Africa
pastoralists in the Sahara and Central Asia
residents of large and small states as well as complex civilizations, i.e. India and Southeast Asia
Colonial Asia in the Early Twentieth Century
Reading the Map: Which Southeast Asian kingdom maintained its independence from European colonial powers?
How to Become a Colony 101
trading firms (ex. the East India Companies) with military capabilities & permission to colonize from their government slowly expanded control in India and Indonesia
Scramble for Africa: European powers partitioned the continent of Africa (sans Liberia & Ethiopia) amongst themselves in 25 years
Berlin Conference (1884) to lay out the rules for “Scramble” & hope to avoid wars; Eur. needed to have a plan to occupy/control/use the land; no African leaders at meeting
ignored ethnic & linguistic divisions when imposing their political boundaries; divisions based around resources
widespread, intensive resistance by native peoples (Zulu), previous settlers (Boers), indigenous rulers (Samory Toure)
decentralized states were hardest to conquer
Conquest of Pacific islands resulted from exploration, scientific curiosity, the missionary impulse, & economic interests
American, British, French, Dutch, & German competition in Polynesia joined by Australia & Chile in late 19th century
desired resources included sperm whale oil, guana, mineral nitrates/phosphates, sandalwood, etc.
Conquest and Resistance in Colonial Africa
Reading the Map: “France’s colonial possessions were concentrated in North and West Africa, with Britain’s colonies focused in eastern and southern Africa.” To what extent is this statement accurate? What problems can you identify with this generalization?
British gained control over Australia / New Zealand
similar to conquest/colonization of N. America
large scale European “settler colonies” brought diseases that reduced native populations by 75%
Disease also decimated populations in Hawaii, etc.
American expansion included:
war with Mexico in early 19th century → new lands
policy of removal or extermination for Native Americans as white settlers moved westward
reformers used reservations as a place to “civilize” Native Americans, remove children to boarding schools, & eradicate tribal life & culture
annexation of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War of 1898
Japanese used European-style methods to conquer Taiwan and Korea
Liberia: settled by 13k freed U.S. enslaved people who became a colonizing elite
some local people tried to enlist Europeans to help in their struggles against neighboring states/people
other local people tried to play off European powers against each other
others torn between fighting back & giving up against European military might
some rulers tried to negotiate to maintain independence & increase power
rulers of Buganda (in East Africa) negotiated to enlarge their state with the British, ultimately benefiting the kingdom’s elite class
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
COMPARISON: In what different ways was colonial rule established in the various regions of Africa and Asia?
CAUSATION: What caused the Scramble for Africa?
COMPARISON: How was the colonization of Australia in the nineteenth century similar to the colonization of North America in the seventeenth century?
Under European Rule
In what ways were European colonial empires similar to earlier imperial processes? In what ways were they distinctive?
European takeover was often traumatic for the colonized peoples; the loss of life & property could be devastating
Some groups & individuals cooperated willingly with their new masters
employment in armed forces; elite often kept much of their status & privileges
Governments & missionaries promoted European education
growth of a small class with Western education→ served as teachers, in clerks, translators, etc.; some went on to higher education abroad and returned home as lawyers, doctors, journalists, etc.
Govs increasingly relied on them as colonial empires became more intricate
Periodic rebellions of all sizes erupted in colonies –India
Indian (Sepoy) Rebellion of 1857-58 was sparked by unhappy troops with violated religious practices, local rulers who were relieved of power, landlords deprived of their land and rents, overtaxed /exploited peasants, weavers unemployed by machine-made textiles, religious leaders affronted by missionary activity
desire to revive the almost-gone Mughal empire
rebellion crushed in 1858 by incoming British troops
racial divide in colonial India increased
the British East India Company went defunct → British government takes over (British Raj) & became wary of sparking another rebellion (made the British more conservative and cautious about deliberately trying to change Indian society)
westward expansion of the USA → frequent, sometimes religious-inspired, rebellions among the Native Americans
The Ghost Dance became prominent in late 1800s
belief that practitioners would be reunited with their ancestors to kick out the foreigners and bring peace back to the Native Americans in North America
rebellions in colonial Africa disturbed the “imperial peace” in the late 1800s and early 1900s
Islam fueled resistance in Algeria, Niger, the Sudan
traditional religions enabled opposition in German East Africa - ex. Maji Maji Rebellion of 1904
“women’s war” against high fees, corruption, taxes
Race a distinguishing point in new colonial empires
coincided with scientific racism → rulers were “superior” but African men were called “boys”
European settlers feared native people with a western education & aspirations to transcend the racial divide
Areas of pronounced racism emerged with larger European settler populations
Ex. South Africa: legal framework set up to divide the races with separate homelands, education, etc. while using cheap African labor to industrialize
system became known as apartheid later
19th c. empires changed subjects’ daily lives
centralized tax collection, communications, transportation, public health, missionary activity
Fascinated with counting/classifying subjects
India: British minimized the complex caste system into 4 castes per the Brahmin version of the idealized caste system (to the benefit of upper class Indians)
Africa: Europeans identified / invented distinct “tribes” to feed a notion of “tribal Africa” as primitive, evolving
this simplifying assisted with colonial administration
Colonial Empires with a Difference
Defined conqueror and conquered in gendered terms
colonizers = active masculinity; colonized = passive, feminine → joined racial prejudice with gender ideals
European women viewed as upholders of moral virtue, to be protected from dark “inferior” men
certain colonized people, i.e. Sikhs, were regarded as masculine & recruited into British military/police
Colonial policies contradicted and European core values and practices at home
colonies were essentially dictatorships vs. democracies at home
colonies were the antithesis of “national independence”
racial classifications were against Christian and Enlightenment ideas of human equality
many colonizers were against spreading “modernization” to the colonies, including urbanization and industrialization, to avoid challenge to empire
but made illegal cultural practices, i.e. sati
the visible contradictions in European behavior helped undermine the foundations of colonial rule over time
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTEXTUALIZATION: Why might subject peoples choose to cooperate with or to actively resist the colonial regime? What might prompt them to violent rebellion or resistance?
COMPARISON: In what ways were European notions of class in the colonies similar to the Indian caste system?
CONTEXTUALIZATION: How did European colonial powers contradict the values of the Enlightenment through their treatment of their colonial territories?
CAUSATION: What were the causes of nineteenth-century European imperialism? What were the effects of imperialism on Asian and African societies?
Ways of Working: Comparing Colonial Economies
How were societies across Africa and Asia transformed by colonial economic policies?
colonial state transformed the daily lives of their subject people
taxing, seizing lands, forcing labor, building infrastructure
colonies became integrated into a world economy reliant on the natural resources they provided
older ways of working eroded, i.e. subsistence farming, artisan work, metallurgy
replaced by working for cash to buy products sold by the Europeans & pay European taxes
entire professions disappeared → artisans largely displaced by manufactured goods
African and Asian merchants who had earlier handled trade between their countries and the world were put out of business by sophisticated European firms
Required and unpaid labor on public projects
ex. “statute labor” of 10-12 days/year in French Africa
worst abuses to labor took place in Congo Free State
personally governed by King Leopold II of Belgium
private, state approved companies forced villagers to collect rubber for bicycle & automobile tires
reign of terror maimed and killed millions for not meeting quotas, beginning in the 1890s→ after these horrors were publicized in Europe, Belgium finally stepped in & took control of the Congo (1908) to end Leopold’s reign of terror
“Cultivation system” - Netherlands East Indies
peasants had to devote at least 20% of land to cash crops (sugar, coffee) to pay as taxes
crops resold for high profits on world market; financed Dutch industrialization
enriched traditional authorities who enforced system through violence, on behalf of the Dutch
Javanese peasants doubly burdened
indebtedness & loss of land, plus lack of labor for food production → wave of deadly famines in Java
Many areas resisted forced cultivation of cash crops
German E. Africa: major rebellion (1905) against forced cotton cultivation
considerable profit to small farmers from cash crop production→ many people happy to increase production
rice from Irrawaddy Delta (in Burma) fed Asia
cash crops in the Mekong Delta (French Vietnam) → significant environmental damage to local fish and shellfish and produced methane gas (global warming)
African farmers took initiative to develop export agriculture in Gold Coast (global cacao supplier-1911)
labor shortages → former slaves exploited, men married women for their labor; migrants created tensions
Cash crop dependence on 1-2 crops was problematic when world market prices ↓↓
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
COMPARISON: In what different ways did the colonial experience reshape the economic lives of Asian and African societies?
COMPARISON: In what ways is the forced labor described here similar to earlier versions of coerced labor, such as the mita and slavery?
CAUSATION: Why might local farmers resist the forced cultivation of cash crops?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: How did cash-crop
agriculture transform the lives of colonized peoples?
Economics of Wage Labor: Migration for Work
Wage labor in European enterprises was common
driven by the need for money and the loss of land → sought work in plantations, mines, and private homes through migration, along with Chinese and Japanese migrants who were moving for job opportunities
African migrants moved in several directions
Atlantic slave trade continued for much of the 19th c.
internal migration grew with European empires
Europeans took over huge tracts of African land
employed Africans as workers on these plantations
Africans remained as “squatters” on their own land
land in “native reserves” faced ecological degradation
gold and diamond mines of South Africa provided employment for unskilled laborers in harsh conditions
about 29 mil Indians & 19 mil Chinese migrated throughout Asia, S. Pacific, Africa, Caribbean, etc.
usually lived in ethnic enclaves with others like them
worked on cash crop plantations financed from Europe
harsh work-living conditions, disease, high # of deaths
British facilitated Indian labor migration to far-flung territories of their empire after ending the slave trade
mines were another source of wage labor, but dangerous work with disease and accidents
many Chinese migrants migrated to Manchuria, & participated in gold rushes of Australia, California
Australia, Canada, New Zealand, & USA all limited Chinese immigration in the late 19th c.
Colonial cities attracted many workers from Africa and Asia in the late 19th-early 20th centuries
cities like Nairobi, Cairo, Calcutta, Batavia, etc. were seen as centers of opportunity
segregated, unsanitary, overcrowded
traditional elites, landlords, Chinese businessmen were on top of the social pyramid in SE Asian cities
native, Western-educated middle class found a place in these cities as teachers, doctors, clerks
working-class elite worked in factories or at ports
an enormous class of urban poor could barely live nor raise families
construction workers, rickshaw drivers, food sellers, domestic workers
Women & the Colonial Economy: Examples from Africa
in precolonial Africa, women were usually active farmers, had some economic autonomy
in colonial economy, women’s lives diverged even more from men
men tended to dominate the lucrative export crops
women were left with almost all of the subsistence work
large numbers of men (sometimes a majority of the population) migrated to work elsewhere
women were left at home to deal, including supplying food to men in the cities
Women coped in a variety of ways
became closer to their birth families instead of their husband’s family per social expectations
established self-help associations in the cities for themselves and for prostitutes
the colonial economy also provided some options for enterprising women, esp. small trade and marketing
sometimes women’s crops had greater cash value and were entitled to keep the profits from the sales
some women escaped patriarchy of husbands/fathers
led to greater fear of witchcraft and efforts by European and African men to restrict female travel and sexuality
Overall economic impact of colonial rule varies
Defenders: jump-started modern economic growth
Critics: history of exploitation & limited, uneven growth
Colonial rule helped integrate Asian/African economies into a global, Europe-led exchange network
some farmers benefited while others were devastated
India faced major drought/famine - 6-10 mil died as colonial government refused to provide relief
colonial rule introduced some modernizing elements
modern bureaucracy, transportation, communication
No breakthrough to modern industrial societies
nationalist movements saw colonial rule as an economic dead end, with freedom bringing possibilities
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: As slave labor declined in the 19th century, what forms of labor replaced it?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: What kinds of wage labor were available in the colonies, and why might people choose this work? How did doing so affect their lives?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: In what ways did colonial economies affect the lives of African women?
ARGUMENTATION: Did colonial rule bring economic “progress” in its wake? What value assumptions are implicit in this question?
Believing & Belonging: Identity & Cultural Change
How did the cultural and ethnic identities of colonized people change in the face of European imperialism?
Education
getting a Western education created a new identity for many colonial subjects
the almost magical power of literacy to the non-literate
escape from obligations like forced labor
access to better-paying jobs in government bureaucracies, mission organizations, businesses and to imported goods that higher salaries could buy
social mobility and elite status within colonial societies
opportunity to come nearer to equality with whites
many enthusiastically embraced European culture
created a cultural divide between them and the vast majority of other imperial subjects
looked down on others for lack of education or Christian religion
The Educated Elite
MAKING CONNECTIONS: How could a historian use this image to describe the relationship between European colonial powers and Thai elites?
Education
many Western-educated elite initially saw themselves as the leaders of regeneration within their societies and thus cooperated with colonial authorities
In India, Western-educated men organized various reform societies to renew Indian culture
focused on removal of idolatry and caste restrictions
focused on improving the status of women
campaigned against sati, female infanticide, child marriage and for education and property rights
Hopes for renewal through colonial rule were dashed
Europeans declined to treat Western-educated subjects as equals - viewed as backward, uncivilized
these subjects later agitated for independence
Religion
Widespread conversion to Christianity in Pacific Oceania and Africa also transformed identities
around 10k missionaries had gone to Africa by 1910
1960s, ~ 50 million Africans were Christian
Christianity was attractive to many in Africa & Oceania
Military defeat shook belief in the old gods
Christianity was associated with modern education
Christianity gave opportunities to the young, the poor, and many women
Christianity spread mostly through native Africans
many Oceanic elites strengthened their position by association with Christianity
missionaries made gains in Oceanic societies which were devastated by newly arrived diseases
Religion
Conflicts over gender roles and sexual norms
female nudity offended Western ideas about modesty
polygamy contradicted Christian monogamy; what should male converts do with additional wives?
bride wealth - offended missionaries believed in sanctity of marriage
sex outside of marriage → discipline or expulsion from church
issue of female circumcision (female genital mutilation) was more explosive
1000s reacted to a ban on the practice by leaving mission schools and churches and creating their own independent schools and churches
Africanization of Christianity took many forms
continuing use of charms, medicine men w/in mission-based churches - viewed as “backsliding”; some looked to demonize & destroy old gods
wide array of “independent churches” were set up under African control - 20th c. “African Reformation” → incorporated African cultural practices & worship
Christianity in India was not widespread
but it led intellectuals & reformers to define the diverse range of beliefs & practices as “Hinduism”--> effort to create a religious equivalent to Christianity
helped to create an ideal of a united India but also set up the Muslims as a distinct community (combined with British policies that divided by religion)
The Missionary Factor
SOURCING AND SITUATION:
How does this photograph reflect Europeans’ beliefs about their role in colonial societies?
“Race” and “Tribe”
Section Summary: Questions to Consider
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: How were new cultural identities forged during the colonial era?
CAUSATION: What impact did Western education have on colonial societies?
CONTEXTUALIZATION: Why were Europeans unwilling to view educated Asians and Africans as equals?
CONTEXTUALIZATION: What were the attractions of Christianity in colonial Africa? What kinds of conflicts did it generate?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: How & why did Hinduism emerge as a distinct religious tradition during the colonial era in India?
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: In what ways were “race” and “tribe” new identities in colonial Africa?
CAUSATION: Why did European colonizers create the notion of tribes in Africa? How did Africans find it useful?
